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People used to throw cadavers into the canals of Utrecht. Old or sick animals were tied in a burlap sack weighed down with stones and drowned in a ditch. Perishable foods were stored in preserving jars, lard or brine. Horses were draught animals and riding wasn't a hobby for young girls. So how has veterinary knowledge changed our behaviour over the last two hundred years? Read the five short articles below to find out.

Personal hygiene

Washing works wonders

'We share seventy per cent of our infectious diseases with animals', explains Peter Koolmees, emeritus professor of Veterinary Medicine in a historical and social context at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. 'We've known this since the discovery of micro-organisms and birth of microbiology around 1870. This was the first time we realised that humans and animals are surrounded by parasites, bacteria, viruses and fungi.' We started developing vaccines and other veterinary drugs (antibiotics) to control pathogenic micro-organisms, marking a real turning point in veterinary history. 

Since then, we've been more aware of the need for personal hygiene when handling animals. We began to realise that human health, animal health and the environment are all closely related. 'We started operating with sterile instruments, wearing white gowns in operating theatres, washing our hands with soap after working and going to the toilet, and taking regular showers. We also started building sanitary facilities like sewers and drinking water systems, and introduced pest control and rubbish collection services. Veterinarians played an important role in that process because of their knowledge of zoonoses – infectious diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans.'

Many Dutch municipalities started setting up health committees at the time, Koolmees explains. 'Veterinarians mainly focused on inspecting food products like milk, meat and eggs and overseeing the construction of slaughterhouses. Animal carcasses and offal were properly disposed of rather than being dumped in Utrecht's canals. The Dutch Food Inspection Service was also created around this time.'

Food and drink

Nice and long lasting

The past two hundred years have also seen a lot of changes in terms of our food and drink. 'Around 1960, most kitchens were fitted with refrigerators that could store perishable foods like butter, meat and fish', Koolmees explains. 'Until that time, perishable foods were stored in preserving jars, lard or brine. These days, we check the best-before date and make sure not to let food go bad, especially animal products. Veterinary medicine really raised people's awareness of food safety and kitchen hygiene. While the average GP doesn't really know much about zoonoses, veterinarians learn a lot about these diseases during their training. They teach people how to prevent food poisoning by micro-organisms; the vast majority of food poisonings tend to be microbiological.'

Two centuries ago, market vendors were aware that food products would keep longer during winter. 'These days, we all have a fridge. The question is, is it set to the right temperature and how long should you wait before refrigerating a hot meal? For years, we sent students to canteens at the Uithof to collect samples from countertops and cutting boards. The familiar dishcloth is also a huge source of micro-organisms; you need to use a clean one every day.'

Nowadays, all consumers are aware of Salmonella and the need to be careful with raw food. 'In 1959, about fifty people died in the Netherlands due to a major outbreak of Salmonella. You should always stir-fry bean sprouts first – raw bean sprouts actually contain more salmonella than raw chicken meat', Koolmees explains. 'That's not all that strange if you think about it: vegetables grow in soil, manure and water that can contain pathogenic micro-organisms. Thanks to veterinary research, we now know that we need to pasteurise, sterilise, refrigerate, salt or ferment products in order to preserve them properly.'

Pets

Cuddly buddies

Two hundred years ago, we defined pets as any animals living on a farm. We used horses on the fields and in the army – we wouldn't have been able to pull anything without them. As the 1960s brought more prosperity and leisure time, we started keeping animals as a hobby. The number of dogs, cats, rabbits and other pets has been growing steadily ever since. Koolmees: 'These days, pets are a bigger business than the poultry sector.' The relationship between people and animals has also been changing since the 1980s and 1990s. Although the Animal Protection Society has been around since 1864, it only gained widespread public support after WWII. 'These days, we tend to treat cute, cuddly pets like members of our household. We can technically keep all these animals healthy for many years. We give them everything from optimal nutrition, vaccinations, caesarean sections and chemotherapy to a five-thousand-euro open-heart operation for your dog. That would have seemed ridiculous to people in the 1960's.'

'By 1965, there were more tractors than horses in the Netherlands. In fact, we even started wondering whether we should close down our equine clinic at some point – there were only 40,000 farm horses left in the Netherlands. That all changed as horse riding became a popular hobby among young girls. The Netherlands now has over a thousand stables and an estimated 300,000 horses.'

We have an increasingly intimate relationship with our pets. 'We cuddle dogs and cats who lick all sorts of things outdoors. Parasitologists warn that worm infections can cause your pet to spread thousands of worm eggs. Young children are especially susceptible to infection through cuddling and sandboxes. A lot of diseases are also transmitted through petting zoos. Keeping all those animals in one place definitely has its downsides in terms of hygiene. With that in mind, you should always make sure to wash your hands, avoid cleaning the cat box when you're pregnant and get your pets vaccinated every year. We wouldn't be aware of these things without veterinary knowledge.' 

Leisure time/enjoying nature

Out and about in the 'wild'

Hiking, mountain biking, building huts or walking the dog: we definitely love nature here in the Netherlands, and spend lots of our free time there when we get the chance. That wasn't always the case, as Koolmees explains. 'Our notion of nature has changed radically over the past two hundred years. Nature used to be the preserve of the nobility, who would go hunting in the woods. Common farmers and citizens didn't have time to enjoy nature, they were too busy surviving. It wasn't until the 1920s that we started going on walks in the countryside and enjoying nature the way we do today'.

Koolmees feels today's city-dwellers have a romanticised view of nature. 'Children are raised on Disney animals that are kind to each other and people. But that notion of a paradise-like harmony between all living things is a far cry from reality. Wild animals carry diseases that can infect livestock, pets and people. Wolves have also returned to the Netherlands in recent years. The forestry service is still mostly happy about that, but it's only a matter of time before one of the wolves attacks a baby or a young child.

Koolmees shares these examples to illustrate our attitude to nature. On the one hand, we feel a sense of empathy and admiration. We support the idea of more nature reserves and wild animals. On the other hand, we don't want nature to get too close for comfort and want to avoid any inconvenience to our lives. However, many people object to hunting and game management. These values are incompatible and can simply never be reconciled.

So how do we perceive our natural environment? Does a small country like the Netherlands still have any genuine unspoilt nature, or are our wildlife reserves basically just tidy overmanaged parks? While we still lack clear answers to all these dilemmas, veterinarians can certainly fuel the debate with scientific information.

Holidays abroad

Safely on an adventure

Holidays are the perfect time to rest and recharge your batteries, and most of us prefer to enjoy them abroad. Veterinary knowledge also has an important role to play here, as Koolmees explains. In fact, that even extends to holiday travel within Europe. 'The most recent rabies outbreak occurred in Amsterdam in 1962, killing a total of four people. That led to a large-scale vaccination campaign among dogs and cats, effectively eradicating the disease from the Netherlands. However, the disease still exists in other countries, including European nations like Turkey and Spain Vets have a duty to educate people and discourage them from bringing stray dogs and cats from their holiday destinations.

Veterinary knowledge will help you to travel well prepared, especially when visiting faraway destinations. Koolmees offers three tips for a safe holiday. 'Be mindful of food safety in order to avoid any risk of infection'. He summarises the key points: 'Don't buy street food, always drink bottled water, heat up your meals properly and don't eat exotic raw foods. The wet market in Wuhan showed us what that can lead to. He also stresses the importance of caution in the wilderness. 'Make sure to bring insect repellent to protect yourself against ticks, fleas and mosquitoes.' Finally, he recommends visiting the Municipal Health Service (GGD) before you travel. 'Ask them for information about any local diseases you need to watch out for'. Still, he emphasises we should mainly focus on the positives: 'The knowledge gained through fields like veterinary medicine has made it possible for us to travel safely. You should use that to your advantage, and enjoy your holiday.'

This is an article from Vetscience issue 12 (in Dutch).